Looking Back

I remember reading a particular article (Ernst & Emmons, 1992) in one of my undergraduate instrumental methods classes that left quite an impression on me. It was about the New Horizons Band movement (now a part of the New Horizons International Music Association), whose philosophy was designed to meet the musical and social needs of senior adults. The article chronicled how members in this program had the opportunity to either learn an instrument for the first time or continue musical study after a considerable hiatus. Teaching adult beginners was a foreign concept to me; it was such a different model than what I had envisioned teachers doing, or even what students—of any age—were capable of achieving. Yet, the idea of providing a musical and social outlet for senior adults was compelling, and I told myself that I would start a senior adult band once I became established as a public school band director. After a decade of teaching, however, I forgot about that particular aspiration. The busyness of teaching kept me focused on my school-aged students. I forgot to consider the notions of lifelong learning, and, subsequently, to weave those tenets into my teaching—that is, until I began working with a New Horizons Band in Michigan. It was at that point that I took a renewed interest in the concept of adult music learning.

Looking Ahead

Today, American adults outnumber those younger than 18 for the first time. As the baby-boomers continue to age, the percentage of the population represented by older adults will continue to rise. Because present-day learning styles tend to be self-directed in nature (e.g., Internet learning, continuing education classes, community groups), aging adults may seek educational opportunities to improve their quality of life (Coffman & Adamek, 1999; Myers, 2008). Music educators could play a vital role in serving adult learners in a variety of ways. As such, the commentary that follows outlines three primary areas: (a) characteristics of adult learning, (b) adult learners in community music settings, and (c) practical applications for school and community music. The intergenerational principles of community music and the longitudinal implications of lifelong music making might be of special interest to music educators as the profession reevaluates how music is taught and learned, and how students are socialized musically.

Characteristics of Adult Learning

The field of adult learning—also known as andragogy, or the adult version of pedagogy—has garnered more attention from music teachers and researchers over the past few decades (Coffman, 2002; Kruse, 2009; Myers, 2008). Prior to the 1980s, there had been a general lack of concern in North America for formulating theories of adult learning. Knowles (1984) and Brookfield (1986) identified characteristics unique to adult education and investigated ways to further the development of an adult-driven philosophy. Brookfield focused on six characteristics of successful adult learning:

1. Adults learn throughout life as they adjust to life changes.
2. They display a diversity of learning styles and learn in different ways, at different rates, and for different reasons.
3. They prefer problem-centered learning that directly applies to specific personal concerns.
4. They are influenced, both positively and negatively, by prior experiences.
5. If learning is to occur, they need to view themselves as learners.
6. Adults tend to be self-directed learners (p. 31).

For the purposes of the present discussion on adult musicians, music andragogy can be thought of as any self-directed, self-initiated learning behavior that, when displayed by adult participants in music-making activities, may indicate that independent musicianship has evolved and has expressed itself in self-governing actions with respect to specific musical settings. Although self-directed behaviors can include such actions as asking higher-order questions, seeking additional instruction, tailoring one's individual practice habits toward improved learning, searching out musical resources, inferring to other areas, and remaining self-selective in participatory activities, these indicators might provide a window into what adults are learning in music settings, how they are assimilating and transferring musical information into practice and performance, and how this could inform teaching at the individual and group levels. Many of these tenets are best reflected in community music programs.

Adult Learners in Community Music Programs

Generally and globally, community music programs are founded on the premise that everyone has the ability to make music. Community music involves active participation in many kinds of music making, including performing, improvising, and creating (Green, 2002; Veblen & Olsson, 2002). Musical communities can appear in sundry forms, such as community concert bands, choirs, orchestras, jazz bands, rock bands, barbershop quartets, Renaissance ensembles, and church choirs. While some ensembles may have more stringent performance guidelines than others, many groups have two unique characteristics in common, in that membership is both voluntary and self-selected (Veblen & Olsson, 2002). An individual who chooses to participate in a community music group also has the opportunity to move through a variety of roles in the ensemble, "from observer, to participant, to shaper, to creator" (p. 731).

Motivation is a key factor for adults who pursue musical opportunities. Coffman (2002) outlined three levels of adult participation in community ensembles: (a) personal motivations, including self-expression, leisure, self-improvement, and recreation; (b) musical motivations, including a professed love of music, learning more about music, and performing for one's self and others; and (c) social motivations, including meeting new people, being with friends, and having a sense of belonging. Furthermore, adults have reported perceived health benefits associated with music participation, including outlets for expressing feelings; structures that promote physical rehabilitation; non-pharmacological management of pain and discomfort; sense of control over life through experiencing success and mastery; positive changes in mood and emotional states; anxiety and stress reduction; memory recall that contributes to reminiscence and life satisfaction; and opportunities to interact socially with others (Koga & Tims, 2001). Thus, adults can experience high levels of satisfaction when learning fulfills expressive needs.

Adult learners in music also can select their level of participation across a continuum. Gates (1991) concluded that community music ensembles overwhelmingly consisted of amateurs, apprentices, and professionals, as these categories tended to view musical performance as accomplishment. He also concluded that participation in adult music ensembles would only increase to the extent that music educators would explore avenues in which to attract the dabblers, recreationalists, and hobbyists, as these groups tended to view music as entertainment.

An additional consideration in adult music learning is the preparation of music instructors for this age group, as suggested above. Although adults might be more likely than children to recognize their need for learning, teacher education programs are still developing programs to teach the kinds of skills that are needed for working with students beyond 12th grade. Intuition and school-based strategies often are the foundation for many music educators' teaching styles, rather than teaching lifetime learning habits (Myers, 2008). There also has been a commonly accepted theory that teachers understand the critical developmental stages of junior high and high school students far better than those of adults, so it is imperative for teachers to recognize adult music learning tendencies if they are to raise the level of understanding regarding the stages of adult development.

Pedagogical approaches traditionally have been employed in music education classrooms. In some cases, however, independent musicianship may not be achieved fully, because students can become dependent on an instructor for musical decision-making. While it is undeniable that pedagogic techniques (e.g., teaching posture, vocal production, breathing, notation, counting, forming and maintaining an embouchure) must be used in teaching an individual to sing or play an instrument, self-initiated musical behaviors might indicate that andragogic, self-directed thought patterns have been assimilated.

While early definitions of andragogy are specific to the adult population, I submit that andragogical behaviors may be observable in students of any age if conditions are such that those behaviors are encouraged and nurtured by instructors. Additionally, viewing andragogy as a style of learning might be helpful in realizing that there are ways of learning that are not reliant on age or experience, and through which students of any age might be able to make independent, age-appropriate decisions regarding their own learning. Nevertheless, adult learners may be the best models we have for exploring this type of learning.

Practical Applications for School and Community Music

Through reflecting on the above considerations, as well as on a growing body of research in adult music learning, music educators might gain insight toward understanding the learning processes in adult musicians, and thus, could transfer this information to school settings. The ways in which school music teachers might apply lessons drawn from adult learning are discussed below:

1. Acknowledge and embrace the social characteristics of being in a music ensemble.

While the primary objectives for many music instructors and students may be musical performances and musical knowledge acquisition, there are other motivators at play in music classrooms that are, for some students, just as powerful, if not more so, than music itself. Social paradigms are not only the bedrock of many school music programs, but are foundational within communities, including churches, fraternal organizations, civic clubs, guilds, and other community activities. Acknowledging the social aspects of music ensemble participation is in no way meant to detract from the importance of organized, focused, and productive rehearsals, but rather to illustrate the importance of creating a healthy, active, and accepting community within the classroom. Many community-based ensembles are as much musical organizations as they are social organizations. Gaining an awareness of the ways in which classroom climate can be balanced and maintained by concentrating on students' musical, personal, and social needs may be of great consideration for school music teachers, as how they guide and nurture students in making emotional connections to music might also lead students in making similar emotional connections to their peers, families, colleagues, and to the greater community of which they are a part.

2. Deepen students' musical awareness and musicianship by providing opportunities for engaging them in critical thinking activities.

Students' cognitive and emotional development is such that they may not be able to consistently create and transfer knowledge to and from other areas of their life. Eliciting critical thinking in ensembles using higher-order questioning techniques could be an extremely successful and rewarding prospect for students and teachers to consider. While many adults take responsibility for their own learning and express a genuine desire to expand their awareness, students in school music programs can benefit from more frequent questioning and activities that explore, challenge, and reinforce their current notions of what music represents. Although rehearsal time is a precious commodity in any setting and with any age group, there may be additional avenues worth exploring in terms of music instruction that afford students a larger reservoir of knowledge, especially at the beginning levels, and that may ultimately create an atmosphere emphasizing active learning among students rather than passive learning originating from a teacher-centered approach.

Beginning with the assumption that everyone in class is there to learn and not to be taught, asking thoughtful (planned) questions serves as a basis for generating additional questions throughout the learning process: How has the composer altered the melody in this new section? What is the relationship between the melody and the countermelody? What could the tonal significance suggest here? What is important for us to know about this piece before we arrive at conclusions regarding appropriate diction/articulations, style, and dynamic ranges? Creating opportunities for students to demonstrate the degree of musicianship that has been assimilated remains a viable means for improving and individualizing instruction. Interweaving questions with explanations, circumventing questions that garner surface-level knowledge (e.g., How many sharps are there?), and avoiding yes or no questions (e.g., Does everybody know where we are?) are perhaps some of the most effective ways to combat ineffective questioning techniques in the classroom and to elicit critical thinking in students.

3. Decrease the reliance on notation for beginners.

As is often the case with beginning school ensembles, reading notation becomes one of the first and foremost priorities. While notation is indisputably a skill that requires nurturing and refining in young students, it can, at times, become a hindrance in the early stages of musical development if it becomes a prerequisite or a "crutch" before students are able to perform tunes and songs. For example, instrumental students might have difficulty in discerning pitches within phrases because they are relying on the fingers that accompany a given note, and might be thinking mechanically rather than musically. In addition, notation can be routinely misread, ignored, or decoded improperly by student musicians when there is a disconnect between rhythm, movement, and symbolic representation. Singing or playing tunes by ear and learning rote songs in conjunction with written notation could be important contributors toward cultivating students' personal musicianship. Additionally, a reduction in reliance on notation for beginners also might lead to a broader understanding of melody and harmony, and could be a way to initiate the journey toward independent musicianship.

Furthermore, teachers and parents often can underestimate students' pre-existing levels of musical sophistication. The music that students (and adults) encounter on the radio, at home, and on electronic media includes rhythmic and harmonic intricacies that are not found in traditional choral warm-ups or instrumental method books. In contrast, beginning students often are held to learning a series of whole notes and pitches that do not possess an authentic musical context. Consequently, the music that students encounter outside of school tends to conflict with the music they experience inside school. While whole notes and long tone exercises certainly are valuable in the development of student musicians, teaching rote songs with degrees of rhythmic interest and implementing aural exercises that elicit ear sensitivity and perceptibility could be ways to reduce the rift between formal music instruction and pop culture influences, as well as diminishing a perpetual reliance on written notation.

4. Encourage and promote chamber ensembles.

Students who participate in small-group chamber ensembles have a distinct opportunity to experience a heightened degree of responsibility for themselves and accountability to their peers. Independent musicianship, power sharing within the ensemble, decision-making processes, and negotiation toward a finished product can result from participating in and organizing chamber groups, whose leadership comes from within. While suggestions and guidance from the music teacher can lead students to more informed, reliable decisions, a guiding premise behind chamber groups is to provide students with a meaningful musical experience that generates insight to understanding the inner workings of the full ensemble. Sensitivity to nuance, dynamics, balance, and musical style also can result from student participation in chamber ensembles.

In addition to the aforementioned, another attraction to small-group ensembles is the difficulty level of the music. Many students who play stereotypically "non- melody" instruments are able to experience music that is more demanding of their skills, of their understanding, and of the likelihood that the application and implementation of their prior knowledge will be employed. Because adult musicians are known to seek out chamber music opportunities as a way to supplement large ensemble experiences, this gives credence to the practice of allowing students to explore chamber music opportunities earlier and more frequently.

5. Investigate ways to attract and recruit "non-traditional" music students into school music ensembles and programs.

An overwhelming majority of the students who school music teachers encounter are traditional band, choir, and orchestra students. Yet, there are innumerable students in schools who not only have a high musical aptitude, but who have a desire to express themselves musically and have been denied access to school music instruction. While school schedules and budgets may not readily allow for additional classes, reconfigured schedules, or additional faculty, music instructors may want to investigate how accommodating non-traditional school music students could impact existing classes, such as secondary general music classes, voice class, piano labs, composition studios, music theory, music appreciation, beginning instrumental classes at the secondary level, and non- traditional ensembles such as garage bands, rock bands, fiddle groups, and drumming circles. Including these students in school music-making activities may not only combat the idea that music exists for only "the talented," but might concurrently support a natural transition into teaching and facilitating the precepts of community music-making and its many variants.

6. Encourage and advance community music and the notion of lifelong learning and music making.

As previously emphasized, community music practices are global phenomena that can assume many forms and include all ages. Because music reflects society and the people in it, it is important for music educators to teach the adult within the child by making a case for lifelong learning. While adults may be more likely than children to recognize their need for learning, it behooves school music instructors to emphatically and consistently encourage their students to participate in community music and to inform them that they indeed are able to embrace a musical life beyond 12th grade.

Inviting community artists into the classroom for sectionals, master classes, or guest lectures can be ways to fill the void that often exists between schools and communities. Community performers in the genres of jazz, mariachi, Celtic fiddle, and African, Native American, or Arabic drumming would be a welcome addition to the classroom environment, because these individuals are the cultural tradition bearers of these practices. The possibility also exists for creating school ensembles that reflect the culture of the community. Another form of community engagement could include an "intergenerational ensemble" that is made up of both students and community members. As part of a regular school concert, adult musicians could join student musicians for selected pieces; individuals of all ages—children and adolescents through senior adults—could be intermingled on stage, representing a visual depiction of lifelong learning, musicianship, and collaboration.

Looking Both Ways

Because adults are thought to possess the ability to independently conceptualize their own educational needs, it is through considering adult learning theories that music instruction's effectiveness might be enhanced. It is perhaps through exploring, acting, and reflecting on the tenets of adult learning that its position and role within music education will become clearer. This attention could afford teachers a framework for not only suiting the needs of a growing population of adult learners, whose artistic and creative needs could be fulfilled through music participation, but whose examples may be used in drawing lessons that inform school music teaching and learning.

Teaching lifetime learning habits and understanding the critical developmental stages of junior high, high school, and adult students could be a way to broaden the context of music learning within the profession. Additionally, teacher preparation programs could assign preservice teachers to additional fieldwork among adult learners to infuse andragogic principles into existing curriculum instruction. Preparing teachers who are properly suited to meet the multiple demands of a changing society remains a pressing consideration.

Further considerations include highlighting the role of the teacher in facilitating musical empowerment among students, examining ways to integrate concepts of adult learning into school music education, relating the many ways in which music functions within communities, and encouraging relationships between school music and community music. Looking in both directions—ahead and back—along the age continuum may be of great benefit and interest to music educators as the profession endeavors to broaden the scope of music education beyond the P-12 framework.

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